Benchmark I, Task 2

In this section the students explored how weapons of mass destruction are acquired or produced. The following papers were submitted:

What is uranium and where does it come from? Uranium is a very heavy metal and can be used as a source of concentrated energy. Uranium is most commonly found in rocks, but can also occurs in the earths crust, but may be found in sea water. The substance was discovered in 1789, by a German chemist, Martin Klaproth. Uranium is symbolized with U. Its melting temperature is 1132 degrees Celsius. Uranium can be converted into ores which can be used as a reactor fuel. The uranium ore is mined; then crushed and ground up. It is then treated with an acid solvent. After that the uranium is recovered from the solution. The end product of this process is a uranium oxide concentrate. At this time the form of the uranium is a solid. The next step in making a useable fuel is to convert uranium oxide into a gas that can be enriched. After that process the enriched (UF6) gas is converted to uranium dioxide, which can be formed into a fuel pellet. Those pellets are then placed in a metal tube, the pellets bundle up to become fuel elements for the core reactor. (11)

The first and most difficult step in constructing a nuclear bomb is locating and obtaining the fissionable materials. (1) The first procedure in constructing a nuclear weapon would be to locate two pieces of weapon grade uranium. When added together these two pieces it should have a weight of more than five kilograms. After this challenge is accomplished, the next step would be to create a detonator. The simplest way to create a detonator would be to take an amount of TNT and then attach it to a timing device. The final procedure would be to take a box and attach one piece of uranium to each end. Place the detonator behind a piece of the uranium, so when the TNT detonates, the TNT will throw the uranium across the box into the opposing uranium piece. If you wanted to increase the yield and reliability of the bomb, you could add plutonium to your enriched uranium. (3)

Acquiring or Producing Chemical Weapons

The probable use of chemical weapons is greater than any other type of weapon of mass destruction. While the modern well-equipped army can deal with these threats, poorly equipped armies and civilian populations are at definite risk.

To acquire and fully integrate chemical weapons, a proliferant state would need to: (1)

acquire equipment and materials needed to for chemical weapon (CW) agent production and the relevant expertise;

To obtain the expertise that would be needed to produce chemical weapons, a proliferant would need only to seek scientists, engineers, and technicians trained in similar chemical production technologies.

Here is a current list of restricted equipment, followed by the list of restricted precursor chemicals. This list is provided by the "Australia Group", a group of thirty-three nations and the European Commission, which prohibit the export of any of these chemicals and equipment to non-member countries.

I. MANUFACTURING FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT (2)

Note 1. The objective of these controls should not be defeated by the transfer of any non-controlled item containing one or more controlled components where the controlled component or components are the principal element of the item and can feasibly be removed or used for other purposes.

NB In judging whether the controlled component or components are to be considered the principal element, governments should weigh the factors of quantity, value, and technological know-how involved and other special circumstances which might establish the controlled component or components as the principal element of the item being procured.

Note 2. The objective of these controls should not be defeated by the transfer of a whole plant, on any scale, which has been designed to produce any CW agent or AG-controlled precursor chemical.

1. Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators

Reaction vessels or reactors, with or without agitators, with total internal (geometric) volume greater than 0.1m3 (100 l) and less than 20m3 (20000 l), where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; or zirconium or zirconium alloys.

Agitators for use in the above-mentioned reaction vessels or reactors where all surfaces of the agitator that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; or zirconium or zirconium alloys.

2. Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers

Storage tanks, containers or receivers with a total internal (geometric) volume greater than 0.1m3 (100 l) where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; or zirconium or zirconium alloys.

3. Heat Exchangers or Condensers

Heat exchangers or condensers with a heat transfer area of greater than 0.15 m², and less than 20m², where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); graphite; tantalum or tantalum alloys titanium or titanium alloys; zirconium or zirconium alloys; silicon carbide; or titanium carbide.

4. Distillation or Absorption Columns

Distillation or absorption columns of internal diameter greater than 0.1m; where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); graphite; tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; or zirconium or zirconium alloys.

5. Filling Equipment

Remotely operated filling equipment in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; or alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight.

6. Valves

Valves with normal sizes greater than 1.0 cm (3/8"), in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed or contained are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; or zirconium or zirconium alloys.

7. Multi-Walled Piping

Multi-walled piping incorporating a leak detection port, in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); graphite; tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; or zirconium or zirconium alloys.

8. Pumps

Multiple-seal, canned drive, magnetic drive, bellows or diaphragm pumps, with manufacturer's specified maximum flow-rate greater than 0.6 m3/h, or vacuum pumps with the manufacturer's specified maximum flow-rate greater than 5 m3/h (under standard temperature (0o C) and pressure (101.30 kPa) conditions) in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; fluoropolymers; glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enameled coating); graphite; tantalum or tantalum alloys; titanium or titanium alloys; zirconium or zirconium alloys; ceramics; or ferrosilicon.

9. Incinerators

Incinerators designed to destroy CW agents, AG-controlled precursors or chemical munitions, having specially designed waste supply systems, special handling facilities, and an average combustion chamber temperature greater than 1000oC, in which all surfaces in the waste supply system that come into direct contact with the waste products are made from or lined with the following materials:

nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; or ceramics.

These controls do not apply to equipment which is specially designed for use in civil applications (for example food processing, pulp and paper processing, or water purification, etc) and is, by the nature of its design, inappropriate for use in storing, processing, producing or conducting and controlling the flow of chemical warfare agents or any of the AG-controlled precursor chemicals.

II. TOXIC GAS MONITORING SYSTEMS AND DETECTORS(1)

Toxic gas monitoring systems and dedicated detectors designed for continuous operation and usable for the detection of chemical warfare agents or AG-controlled precursors at concentrations of less than 0.3 mg/m³; or designed for the detection of cholinesterase-inhibiting activity.

III. RELATED TECHNOLOGY(1)

The transfer of 'technology', including licenses, directly associated with:

- CW agents;

- AG-controlled precursors; or

- AG-controlled dual-use equipment items, to the extent permitted by national legislation.

Technical assistance is subject to control. Controls on 'technology' transfer, including 'technical assistance', do not apply to information 'in the public domain' or to 'basic scientific research' or the minimum necessary information for patent application.

The approval for export of any AG-controlled item of dual-use equipment also authorizes the export to the same end-user of the minimum 'technology' required for the installation, operation, maintenance or repair of that item.

Definition of Terms:

'Technology'

Specific information necessary for the 'development', 'production' or 'use' of a product. The information takes the form of 'technical data' or 'technical assistance'.

'Basic scientific research'

Experimental or theoretical work undertaken principally to acquire new knowledge of the fundamental principles of phenomena or observable facts, not primarily directed towards a specific practical aim or objective.

'Development'

Development is related to all phases before production such as:

design, design research, design analysis, design concepts, assembly of prototypes, pilot production schemes, design data, process or transforming design data into a product, configuration design, integration design, layouts

'In the public domain'

'In the public domain', as it applies herein, means technology that has been made available without restrictions upon its further dissemination. (Copyright restrictions do not remove technology from being in the public domain).

'Production'

Production means all production phases such as:

construction, production engineering, manufacture, integration, assembly (mounting), inspection, testing, quality assurance

'Technical assistance'

May take forms, such as instruction, skills, training, working knowledge and consulting services.

Note: 'Technical assistance' may involve transfer of 'technical data'.

'Technical data'

May take forms such as blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae, tables, engineering designs and specifications, manuals and instructions written or recorded on other media or devices such as disk, tape, read-only memories.

'Use'

Operation, installation (including on-site installation), maintenance (checking), repair, overhaul or refurbishing.

'Export'

An actual shipment or transmission of AG-controlled items out of the country. This includes transmission of technology by electronic media, fax or telephone.

WP/400 REV.2 CASE NO. SCHEDULE (3)

1. Thiodiglycol (111-48-8) 2B

2. Phosphorus Oxychloride (10025-87-3) 3B

3. Dimethyl Methylphosphonate (756-79-6) 2B

4. Methyl Phosphonyl Difluoride (DF) (676-99-3) 1B

5. Methyl Phosphonyl Dichloride (DC) (676-97-1) 2B

6. Dimethyl Phosphite (DMP) (868-85-9) 3B

7. Phosphorus Trichloride (7719-12-2) 3B

8. Trimethyl Phosphite (TMP) (121-45-9) 3B

9. Thionyl Chloride (7719-09-7) 3B

10. 3-Hydroxy-1-methylpiperidine (3554-74-3) Not Listed

11. N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethyl Chloride (96-79-7) 2B

12. N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethane Thiol

(5842-07-9) 2B

13. 3-Quinuclidinol (1619-34-7) 2B

14. Potassium Fluoride (7789-23-3) Not Listed

15. 2-Chloroethanol (107-07-3) Not Listed

16. Dimethylamine (124-40-3) Not Listed

17. Diethyl Ethylphosphonate (78-38-6) 2B

18. Diethyl N,N-Dimethylosphoramidate (2404-03-7) 2B

19. Diethyl Phosphite (762-04-9) 3B

20. Dimethylamine Hydrochloride (506-59-2) Not Listed

21. Ethyl Phosphinyl Dichloride (1498-40-4) 2B

22. Ethyl Phosphonyl Dichloride (1066-50-8) 2B

23. Ethyl Phosphonyl Difluoride (753-98-0) 1B

24. Hydrogen Fluoride (7664-39-3) Not Listed

25. Methyl Benzilate (76-89-1) Not Listed

26. Methyl Phosphinyl Dichloride (676-83-5) 2B

27. N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Amino Ethanol (96-80-0) 2B

28. Pinacolyl Alcohol (464-07-3) 2B

29. O-Ethyl 2-Diisopropylaminoethyl Methylphosphonite (QL) (57856-11-8) 1B

30. Triethyl Phosphite (122-52-1) 3B

31. Arsenic Trichloride (7784-34-1) 2B

32. Benzilic Acid (76-93-7) 2B

33. Diethyl Methylphosphonite (15715-41-0) 2B

34. Dimethyl Ethylphosphonate (6163-75-3) 2B

35. Ethyl Phosphinyl Difluoride (430-78-4) 2B

36. Methyl Phosphinyl Difluoride (753-59-3) 2B

37. 3-Quinuclidone (3731-38-2) Not Listed

38. Phosphorus Pentachloride (10026-13-8) 3B

39. Pinacolone (75-97-8) Not Listed

40. Potassium Cyanide (151-50-8) Not Listed

41. Potassium Bifluoride (7789-29-9) Not Listed

42. Ammonium Bifluoride (1341-49-7) Not Listed

43. Sodium Bifluoride (1333-83-1) Not Listed

44. Sodium Fluoride (7681-49-4) Not Listed

45. Sodium Cyanide (143-33-9) Not Listed

46. Tri-ethanolamine (102-71-6) 3B

47. Phosphorus Pentasulphide (1314-80-3) Not Listed

48. Di-isopropylamine (108-18-9) Not Listed

49. Diethylaminoethanol (100-37-8) Not Listed

50. Sodium Sulphide (1313-82-2) Not Listed

51. Sulphur Monochloride (10025-67-9) 3B

52. Sulphur Dichloride (10545-99-0) 3B

53. Triethanolamine Hydrochloride (637-39-8) Not Listed

54. N,N-Diisopropyl-2-Aminoethyl Chloride Hydrochloride (4261-68-1) 2B

produce agents in small quantities at a pilot facility to work out technical details of the synthetic process, and then scale up to a production plant;

Depending on the agent, a proliferant state could use current chemical facilities, retrofit current chemical facilities for nerve agent production, or build a new specialized facility or facilities. Many agents, including choking agents and vesicants (blistering agent), can be produced in a common commercial chemical facility.

For example, the most common vesicant, sulphur mustard (H), can be produced nine different ways using common industrial chemicals. The preferred method is to use thiodiglycol, a common chemical found in ballpoint pen inks, photographic developing solutions, lubricant additives, and plastics. With thiodiglycol in hand a producer would then react thiodiglycol with a chlorinating agent, such as hydrochloric acid (HC1). The result would then be sulphur mustard.

purchase suitable munitions and delivery systems (or design, prototype, test, and produce them indigenously);

To purchase suitable munitions, a proliferant state could seek out other nations that would be willing to sell specialized chemical weapons equipment, or the proliferant could begin indigenous research and development. The concept behind every chemical munition is to disperse a chemical payload effectively. To do this, there are three basic methods:

Vapor: Vapor is the most common form of weaponized chemicals. Chemicals in vapor form however less concentrated can spread most effectively in windy and battlefield conditions. Vaporized chemicals will effectively contaminate eyes, respiratory and skin. Depending on length and area exposed the victim will suffer injury or death according with agent used. This chemical form is also more sensitive to meteorological and environmental conditions.

Liquid: Liquid is the second most common form of weaponized chemicals used. Liquid chemicals are more concentrated and so are more deadly if contacted. Though they cannot be inhaled, coming in direct contact with skin can be just as harmful to the victim. For example one milligram of VX nerve agent on the skin is fatal to a human. Liquid droplets on the ground will also evaporate over time causing more injury and death. Although this form will not cover the amount of area that a vapor can it is more likely to kill those exposed.

Solid: Solid chemicals are hardly ever used in chemical weapons except in the case of some point source bombs such as some forms of tear gas or CS used by police. Powder can be made with weapon agents to produce a cloud of toxic dust that can be inhaled or contaminate eyes or in some cases cause harm or death through the skin. This form of chemical weapon is highly sensitive to rain which will cause it to lose its airborne qualities however the agent will still be present in the soil and on material contaminated.

There are multiple methods of dispersal, below are the most popular:

fill the munitions with agent;

Munitions can either be filled at the production plant or filled from tanks where the agent has been stored. Because this is a hazardous process it is usually performed in a sealed building with atmospheric controls.

Chemical agents can either be stored in bulk containers or inside munitions. Nerve agents in particular are very difficult to store requiring them to be stored in inert conditions, away from moisture or oxygen. The purity also effects the length of possible storage, with poorer quality agents the time that they can be stored is significantly reduced.

deliver chemical munitions to the military logistics system for storage and transport to the battle zone; acquire individual and collective chemical defenses and decontamination equipment, and train troops how to fight in a chemical environment; and develop strategic and tactical battle plans for CW use, and practice them in operational tests and field exercises.

1. Technical Aspects of Chemical Weapon Proliferation. Retrieved Feb. 12, 2003, from Princeton University: http://www.wws.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/byteserv.prl/~ota/disk1/1993/9344/934404.PDF
2. (2002) CONTROL LIST OF DUAL-USE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING. Retrieved Feb. 13, 2003, from The Australia Group: http://www.australiagroup.net/control_list/dual_chemicals.htm
3. CHEMICAL WEAPONS PRECURSORS. Retrieved Feb. 13, 2003, from The Australia Group: http://www.australiagroup.net/control_list/precursors.htm
4. (1998) Chemical Weapon Production. Retrieved Feb. 12, 2003, from Federation of American Scientists: http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/cw/produce.htm

Return to Top