| Recovering from the humiliating loss of World War
I and from the Great Depression, Germans found extremist parties more attractive.
Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Party promised to build a new Germany, and his party’s
propaganda appealed to the German sense of national honor. The new Germany
that Hitler envisioned did not include any group the Nazis considered inferior,
especially the Jewish people.
Hitler and His Views
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Adolf Hitler’s ideas were based on racism and German nationalism.
Adolf Hitler was born in Austria on April 20,
1889. Unsuccessful in school, he traveled to Vienna to become an artist
but was rejected by the academy. Here he developed his basic social and
political ideas. At the core of Hitler’s ideas was racism, especially anti-Semitism
(hostility toward Jews). Hitler was also an extreme nationalist who understood
how political parties could effectively use propaganda and terror.
Hitler served four years on the Western Front during World
War I. At the end of the war, Hitler remained in Germany and decided to
enter politics. In 1919 he joined the little-known German Workers’ Party,
one of several right-wing extreme nationalist parties in Munich.
By the summer of 1921, Hitler had taken total control
of the party. By then the party had been renamed the National Socialist
German Workers’ Party (NSDAP, an abbreviation of the German name), or Nazi,
for short. Within two years, party membership had grown to 55,000 people,
with 15,000 in the party militia. The militia was variously known as the
SA, the Storm Troops, or the Brownshirts, after the color of their uniforms.
An overconfident Hitler staged an armed uprising against
the government in Munich in November 1923. This uprising, called the Beer
Hall Putsch, was quickly crushed, and Hitler was sentenced to prison. During
his brief stay in jail, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, or My
Struggle, an account of his movement and its basic ideas.
In Mein Kampf, Hitler links extreme German nationalism,
strong anti-Semitism, and anticommunism together by a Social Darwinian
theory of struggle. This theory emphasizes the right of superior nations
to lebensraum (LAY•buhnz•ROWM)—“living space”—through expansion.
It also upholds the right of superior individuals to gain authoritarian
leadership over the masses.
Rise of Nazism
While in prison, Hitler realized that the Nazis would
have to attain power by legal means, not by a violent overthrow of the
Weimar Republic. Hitler knew that the Nazi Party would have to be a mass
political party that could compete for votes with the other political parties.
Once out of prison, Hitler expanded the Nazi Party in
Germany. By 1929, it had a national party organization. Three years later,
it had 800,000 members and had become the largest party in the Reichstag—
the German parliament.
No doubt, Germany’s economic difficulties were a crucial
factor in the Nazi rise to power. Unemployment had risen dramatically,
growing from 4.35 million in 1931 to about 5.5 million by the winter of
1932. The Great Depression made extremist parties more attractive.
Hitler promised a new Germany that appealed to nationalism
and militarism. The following excerpt is from the introductory chapter
of a handbook given to Hitler Youth boys between the ages of 10 and 14.
Nearly every German boy would have received a copy.
“Our beloved swastika
flag appears at this time too. The Führer himself designed it. For
us, it is more than an outward symbol. We National Socialists [Nazis] see
our program in our flag. We see the social in the red, the movement’s national
thinking in the white, and in the swastika we see the symbol of the victory
of Aryan humanity and the victory of productive humanity, which was always
anti-Semitic and will always be anti-Semitic.
When this flag flies, it is a
parable of our desires: We think of national freedom and social justice,
of racial purity and the victory of Nordic humanity. The swastika reminds
us of the time when Nordic farmers and warriors marched to Italy and Greece.
It was borne at the front of the soldiers as a holy symbol of the Germanic-German
spirit.”
—The Life of
the Führer
In 1934, Nazis held the Nuremberg Rally. Hitler considered
Nuremberg to be “the most German of all cities.” Starting in 1933, the
year Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany, annual Nazi Party rallies
were held at Nuremberg.
The Nazi eagle perched on a swastika was the formal symbol
of the Third Reich. Behind it is the Third Reich battle flag.
These appeals struck an emotional chord in his listeners.
After attending one of Hitler’s rallies, a schoolteacher in Hamburg said,
“When the speech was over, there was roaring enthusiasm and applause. .
. . How many look up to him with touching faith as their helper, their
saviour, their deliverer from unbearable distress.”
The Nazis Take Control
After 1930, the German government ruled by decree with
the support of President Hindenburg. The Reichstag had little power. More
and more, the right-wing elites of Germany—the industrial leaders, landed
aristocrats, military officers, and higher bureaucrats—looked to Hitler
for leadership. Under pressure, Hindenburg agreed to allow Hitler to become
chancellor in 1933 and create a new government.
Within two months, Hitler had laid the foundation for
the Nazi Party’s complete control over Germany. The crowning step of Hitler’s
“legal seizure” of power came on March 23, 1933, when a two-thirds vote
of the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act. This law gave the
government the power to ignore the constitution for four years while it
issued laws to deal with the country’s problems.
The Enabling Act also gave Hitler’s later actions a legal
basis. He no longer needed the Reichstag or President Hindenburg. In effect,
Hitler became a dictator appointed by the parliamentary body itself.
With their new power, the Nazis quickly brought all institutions
under their control. They purged the civil service of Jews and democratic
elements. They set up prison camps called concentration camps
for people who opposed them. Trade unions were dissolved. All political
parties except the Nazis were abolished.
By the end of the summer of 1933, only seven months after
being appointed chancellor, Hitler had established the basis for a totalitarian
state. When Hindenburg died in 1934, the office of president was abolished.
Hitler became sole ruler of Germany. People took oaths of loyalty to their
Führer (FYUR•uhr), or “Leader.”
Why was the Enabling Act important
to Hitler’s success?
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NOW
Answer the following questions in your spiral notebooks: |
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The Nazi State, 1933–1939
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Hitler used anti-Semitism, economic policy, and propaganda
to build a Nazi state.
Hitler wanted to develop a totalitarian state. He had not
simply sought power for power’s sake. He had a larger goal—the development
of an Aryan racial state that would dominate Europe and possibly
the world for generations to come. (Aryan is a term used to identify
people speaking IndoEuropean languages. The Nazis misused the term by treating
it as a racial designation and identifying the Aryans with the ancient
Greeks and Romans and twentiethcentury Germans and Scandinavians.)
Nazis thought the Germans were the true descendants and
leaders of the Aryans and would create another empire like the one ruled
by the ancient Romans. The Nazis believed that the world had already seen
two German empires, or Reichs: the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire
of 1871 to 1918. It was Hitler’s goal to create a Third Reich, the empire
of Nazi Germany.
To achieve his goal, Hitler needed the active involvement
of the German people.
Hitler stated:
“We must develop organizations
in which an individual’s entire life can take place. Then every activity
and every need of every individual will be regulated by the collectivity
represented by the party. There is no longer any arbitrary will, there
are no longer any free realms in which the individual belongs to himself.
. . . The time of personal happiness is over.”
— Adolf Hitler
The Nazis pursued the creation of the totalitarian state
in a variety of ways. They employed economic policies, mass spectacles,
and organizations—both old and new—to further Nazi goals. They also freely
used terror. Policies toward women and, in particular, toward Jews reflected
Nazi aims.
The State and Terror
Nazi Germany was the scene of almost constant personal
and institutional conflict. Struggle was a basic feature of relationships
within the party, within the state, and between party and state. Hitler,
of course, was the ultimate decision maker and absolute ruler.
The Schutzstaffeln (“Guard Squadrons”), known simply
as the SS, were an important force for maintaining order. The SS was originally
created as Hitler’s personal bodyguard. Under the direction of Heinrich
Himmler, the SS came to control not only the secret police forces
that Himmler had set up, but also the regular police forces.
The SS was based on two principles: terror and ideology.
Terror included the instruments of repression and murder—secret police,
criminal police, concentration camps, and later, execution squads and death
camps (concentration camps where prisoners are killed). For Himmler, the
chief goal of the SS was to further the Aryan master race.
“We have to know that
the enemy during war is not only the enemy in the military sense, but also
the ideological enemy. When I speak of enemies, I of course mean our natural
enemy—Bolshevism led by international Jewry and Free Masons. . . .
"[Bolshevism] is the exact opposite
of all which the Aryan people loves, cherishes and values. . . . We [Aryans]
are more valuable because our blood enables us to be more inventive than
the others, to lead our people better than the others, because we have
better soldiers, better statesmen, a higher culture, a better character.
We have better quality, if I now turn to your area, because the German
soldier is more devoted to his duty, more decent and intelligent than the
soldier of the other people.”
— Heinrich Himmler,
“Lecture on the Nature and Tasks of the SS,”
January 1937
With the feared SS under his control, Heinrich Himmler pursued
the Nazi goal of an Aryan master race.
Economics and Spectacles
In the economic sphere, Hitler used public works projects
and grants to private construction firms to put people back to work and
end the Depression. A massive rearmament program, however, was the key
to solving the unemployment problem.
Unemployment, which had reached more than 5 million people
in 1932, dropped to 2.5 million in 1934 and less than 500,000 in 1937.
The regime claimed full credit for solving Germany’s economic woes. The
new regime’s part in bringing an end to the Depression was an important
factor in leading many Germans to accept Hitler and the Nazis.
In addition, the Nazis used mass demonstrations and spectacles
to make the German people an instrument of Hitler’s policies. These meetings,
especially the Nuremberg party rallies that were held every
September, usually evoked mass enthusiasm and excitement.
The Nazi totalitarian state also controlled institutions,
which included churches, schools, and universities. In addition, Nazi professional
organizations and youth organizations taught Nazi ideals.
The Hitler Youth
In a totalitarian state, every individual serves the
state—there is no society apart from it. Just as there were Nazi organizations
for teachers, farmers, and other groups, Hitler established an organization
for young people between the ages of 10 and 18—the Hitler Youth. It was
formed even before the Nazis gained power because Hitler recognized the
importance of winning young people over to his ideas.
Upon joining, a young person took an oath:
“In the presence of the blood banner [Nazi flag]
which represents our Führer, I swear to devote all my energies and
my strength to the saviour of our country, Adolf Hitler. I am willing and
ready to give up my life for him, so help me God.”
The Hitler Youth copied military discipline and stressed
absolute obedience to the party.
Older boys learned to shoot small caliber rifles, while
boys 14 and younger practiced with air guns.
Along with general military training, special divisions
of the Hitler Youth included Flying,
Naval, Motorized, Signal, Medical, and Musical Units.
The female division of the Hitler Youth was the League
of German Girls. They learned obedience, duty, and how to be good mothers.
Sports and calisthenics were valued above other activities.
The Third Reich needed men and women who were physically strong.
MEMBERSHIP INCREASES
The Hitler Youth had 100,000 members when Hitler took
power in January 1933. Membership jumped to 2 million by the end of the
year and to 5.4 million by December 1936. The Nazis later banned competing
youth organizations and, in March 1939, issued a decree requiring all German
youths aged 10 to 18 to join the Hitler Youth. By the early years of World
War II, about 90 percent of the country’s young people belonged to the
Hitler Youth.
SERVING THE REICH
The goal of the Hitler Youth was to indoctrinate young
Germans with Nazi ideology—hatred of Jews, glorification of the German
nation, and worship of Hitler. Hitler Youth members participated in party
rallies and parades, distributed party literature, and kept an eye on teachers
and their curriculum for the Nazi party. The success of the organization
was proven in World War II as young men eagerly signed up for the military,
while youth on the home front collected scrap metal, served as air raid
wardens, and helped wounded soldiers.
Women and Nazism
Women played a crucial role in the Aryan state as bearers
of the children who, the Nazis believed, would bring about the triumph
of the Aryan race. The Nazis believed men were destined to be warriors
and political leaders, while women were meant to be wives and mothers.
By preserving this clear distinction, each could best serve to “maintain
the whole community.”
Nazi ideas determined employment opportunities for women.
Jobs in heavy industry, the Nazis thought, might hinder women from bearing
healthy children. Certain professions, including university teaching, medicine,
and law, were also considered unsuitable for women, especially married
women. The Nazis instead encouraged women to pursue other occupations,
such as social work and nursing. The Nazi regime pushed its campaign against
working women with poster slogans such as “Get ahold of pots and pans and
broom and you’ll sooner find a groom!”
Anti-Semitic Policies
From its beginning, the Nazi Party reflected the strong
anti-Semitic beliefs of Adolf Hitler. Once in power, the Nazis translated
anti-Semitic ideas into anti-Semitic policies, including anti-Jewish boycotts
and other measures.
In September 1935, the Nazis announced new racial laws
at the annual party rally in Nuremberg. These Nuremberg laws
defined who was considered a Jew—anyone with even one Jewish grandparent.
They also excluded Jews from German citizenship, stripped Jews of their
civil rights, and forbade marriages between Jews and German citizens. Jews
could neither teach nor take part in the arts. Eventually, German Jews
were also required to wear yellow Stars of David and to carry identification
cards saying they were Jewish.
A more violent phase of anti-Jewish activity began on
the night of November 9, 1938—Kristallnacht, or the
“night of shattered glass.” In a destructive rampage, Nazis burned synagogues
and destroyed some 7,000 Jewish businesses. At least 100 Jews were killed.
Thirty thousand Jewish males were rounded up and sent to concentration
camps.
Kristallnacht or “Night of Shattered Glass”
Although anti-Semitic policies had been in effect in
Germany since the Nazi takeover in 1933, the events of Kristallnacht signaled
the start of a more violent era of anti-Semitism. Businesses could not
reopen unless managed by non-Jews. Jews were banned from schools and most
public places.
Kristallnacht was named for the shattered windows
resulting from violence against Jews.
“Regards: Measures against
Jews tonight. . . .
“a) Only such measures may be
taken which do not jeopardize German life or property (for instance, burning
of synagogues only if there is no danger of fires for the neighborhoods).
“b) Business establishments and
homes of Jews may be destroyed but not looted. . . .
“c) In business streets special
care is to be taken that non-Jewish establishments will be safeguarded
at all cost against damage. . . .
“As soon as the events of this
night permit the use of the designated officers, as many Jews, particularly
wealthy ones, as the local jails will hold, are to be arrested in all districts.”
— Directive from
SS officer Reinhard Heydrich, November 10, 1938
Kristallnacht led to further drastic steps. Jews were
barred from all public transportation and all public buildings, including
schools and hospitals. They were prohibited from owning, managing, or working
in any retail store. The Jews were forced to clean up all the debris and
damage due to Kristallnacht. Finally, under the direction of the
SS, Jews were encouraged to “emigrate from Germany.”
The fortunate Jews were the ones who managed to escape
from the country.
What steps did Hitler take to
establish a Nazi totalitarian state in Germany?
REVIEW & DO
NOW
Answer the following questions in your spiral notebooks: |
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